Original Prompt Provided by Jessie Peterson

Quothalinguist – Exploring language since ’89

Day Twenty-Nine

Goal: Explore sound changes for vowels.

Exploring Vowel Rules

ɛ → a / _C[+palatal]

a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o

e o → i u / _#

a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)

Raising of e {ɛ,a} ɔ o → i e o u; near j, in particular environments:

— ɛ ɔ u → e o u / _(C)j

— a → e / _j

e → ∅ / V{d,s,n,l,ɾ}_#

o a → {u,o} {a,e}

Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U

a → i / #C[+palatal]V[-long]C_

i → e / #(C)aC[-palatal]_

e o → i u / else

Day Thirty

Goal: Explore stress-sensitive sound changes.

Exploring Stress-Sensitive Rules

a → e / stressed, usually when Ḱ_

V → ∅ / C_{r,l} when unstressed and not at a word boundary

V → ∅ / {r,l}_C when unstressed and not at a word boundary

V → ∅ / C_s when unstressed and not at a word boundary (sporadic)

V → ∅ / s_C when unstressed and not at a word boundary (sporadic)

V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a

Vː → ə / in #U

Day Thirty-One

Goal: Organize notes and select sound changes.

Protolanguage Change 1.1

∅ → j / #(C)iː(C)_V ! _i

∅ → a / #(C)aː(C)_V ! _a

Vː → ə / in #U

p t k s ts → b d ɡ z dz / V_V

e → ∅ / V{d,s,n,l,ɾ}_#

{s̪,s} → θ [θ] “(merged as)”

r → {ʐ,χ}

o a → {u,o} {a,e}

r → {ʐ,χ}

f → h / ! _{ue,L}

V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a

C → ∅ / #_

Protolanguage Change 1.2

∅ → j / #(C)iː(C)_V ! _i

∅ → w / #(C)uː(C)_V ! _u

Vː → ə / in #U

V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a

{s̪,s} → h “(in all environments)”

s̪ → θ

o a → {u,o} {a,e}

r → {ʐ,χ}

f → h / ! _{ue,L}

e → ∅ / V{d,s,n,l,ɾ}_#

s̪ → θ

Protolanguage Change 2.1

e o → je wo / _#

{u,ɨ}i {,a,i {ɨi,i{a,ə}} u{ɨ,a,ə} → wi e je wo

ɛ e → ej je

a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)

V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a

h → ∅ “(just a reminder: from the f → h change above)”

{s̪,s} → h “(in all environments)”

r → {ʐ,χ}

C → C[+voiced] / V_V

e o → i u / _#

a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)

u i → w j / a_ when this a is a result of the preceding metathesis

∅ → a / #(C)aː(C)_V ! _a

C → ∅ / #_

∅ → w / #uː(C)_a

ŋ → n

a → e / stressed, usually when Ḱ_

Protolanguage Change 2.2

e o → je wo / _#

{u,ɨ}i {,a,i {ɨi,i{a,ə}} u{ɨ,a,ə} → wi e je wo

ɛ e → ej je

a → e / stressed, usually when Ḱ_

C[- voiced] → C[+ voiced] / V_V

V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a

{s̪,s} → h “(in all environments)”

a[-long]C → Ca / #_ (! _a?)

u i → w j / a_ when this a is a result of the preceding metathesis

∅ → a / #(C)aː(C)_V ! _a

C → ∅ / #_

Vː → ə / in #U

ŋ → n

a → e / stressed, usually when Ḱ_

Day Thirty-Two

Goal: Test your sound changes as a package.

After Sound Changes

Proto-Forms	Change 1.1	Change 1.2	Change 2.1	Change 2.2
noco	cu	ncu	ocw	cwo
ci	ci	ci	ci	ci
ŋu	ŋu	ŋu	nu	nu
ho	hu	hu	wu	wo
ɾa	ʐa	ʐa	ɾi	ɾe
si	θi	θi	hi	hi
ŋɛ	ŋɛ	ŋɛ	jej	jej
ɕocu	cu	ɕcu	oc	ɟu
ɾat͡sʼo	dza’u	ʐdzu	et͡hʼw	ət͡hʼwe’o
ŋut͡ɕ’o	t͡ɕ’u	ŋt͡ɕ’wu	ut͡ɕ’w	t͡ɕ’wo
ɬo	ɬu	ɬu	wu	wo
ra	ʐa	ʐa	ʐi	re
k’a	k’a	k’a	k’i	k’e
wi	wi	wi	wi	wi
θɛ	θɛ	θɛ	jej	jej
lɛ	lɛ	lɛ	jej	jej
t’ɛɕi	ɕi	t’ɕi	ejɕ	əjɕi
t͡ɕ’ɛ	t͡ɕ’ɛ	t͡ɕ’ɛ	jej	jej
hɛ	hɛ	hɛ	ej	jej
hi	hi	hi	i	hi
ilɛ	əl	əl	jej	jej
rohu	hu	ʐhu	ʐu	əɦu
ɲijɛp’ɛ	jɛb	ɲjɛb	jejp’jj	jəjp’jj
ɾɛsɛ	zɛ	ʐzɛ	ejhjej	əjhjej
t’oɲu	ɲu	t’ɲu	oɲ	əɲu
cu	cu	cu	cu	cu
p’uninɛ	nin	p’nwin	uninjj	əninjj
p’o	p’u	p’u	wu	wo
nɛja	ja	nja	jji	jje
cɛco	cu	ccu	ejcw	jcwo
alu	a’u	lu	le	ew
ɾuk’ɛ’u	gɛ’u	ʐk’wɛ’u	ugej	əgej
ro’i	ʐi	ʐi	ʐu	ə’i
ŋina	nja	ŋnja	ni	ne
afamɛ	am	ham	avemjj	ə’emjj
umuhi	uh	muh	mu	uɦ
oθusa	uza	θuza	uh	əze
t’oɕu’u	ɕu’u	t’ɕu’u	oʑu	əʑu’u
k’uno	nu	k’nwu	unw	ənwo
hit’uɕɛ	t’juɕ	ht’juɕ	uɕjj	duɕjj
ha	ha	ha	i	he
t’u’i	t’i	t’wi	wi	wi
ɬa’ɛ	a’ɛ	ɬɛ	aje’ej	əje’ej
si’ɛ	jɛ	θjɛ	jej	jej
ŋajo	ja’u	ŋju	ejw	əjwe’o
mu	mu	mu	mu	mu
fuhɛ	hɛ	hhwɛ	jej	hjej
awaɬo	aɬ	waɬ	aweɬw	ə’eɬw
hiro	ʐju	hʐju	iʐw	rwo
jɛt͡ɕ’u	t͡ɕ’u	jt͡ɕ’u	ejt͡ɕ’	jt͡ɕ’u
ŋi	ŋi	ŋi	ni	ni
jut’ihu	dih	jt’wih	t’i	diɦ
θu	θu	θu	θu	θu
rɛmu	mu	ʐmu	ejm	əjmu
cɛɬu	ɬu	cɬu	ejɬ	jɬu
woɾi	ʐi	wʐi	oɾ	ɾi
ɾaɾaci	χac	ʐχac	aɾec	əɾe’eɟ
p’i’ama	jam	p’jam	jjmi	jjme
ji	ji	ji	ji	ji
numu	mu	nmu	um	mu
maɾoja	ʐa’uj	mʐuja	aɾe’oj	əɾe’oje
ɬot͡sʼo	dzu	ɬdzu	ot͡hʼw	t͡hʼwo
ɕi	ɕi	ɕi	ɕi	ɕi
ɬalo	la’u	ɬlu	elw	əlwe’o
p’ɛha	ha	p’ha	eji	əjhe
li	li	li	li	li
it͡sʼu	θʼju	t͡θʼju	it͡hʼ	d͡zu
θiŋu	ŋju	θŋju	in	nu
mo	mu	mu	wu	wo
mɛɕi	ɕi	mɕi	ejɕ	jɕi
mɛ	mɛ	mɛ	jej	jej
sowi	wi	θwi	ow	wi
t’a	t’a	t’a	t’i	t’e
jɛ	jɛ	jɛ	jej	jej
rɛ	ʐɛ	ʐɛ	jej	jej
muθa	θa	mθwa	θi	ðe
wɛ	wɛ	wɛ	jej	jej
t’o	t’u	t’u	wu	wo
p’iɕo	ɕju	p’ɕju	iɕw	əɕwo
ɬat’i	da’i	ɬdi	et’	əde’i
ma	ma	ma	mi	me
mat’u	da’u	mdu	et’	əde’u
k’o	k’u	k’u	wu	wo
it͡sʼo	θʼju	t͡θʼju	it͡hʼw	wo
ha’a	ha	ha	ej	ə’e
hoɲi	ɲi	hɲi	oɲ	ɲi
t͡sʼi	θʼi	t͡θʼi	t͡hʼi	t͡hʼi
hi’u	ju	hju	i	ə’u
raɕaɾa	ɕaʐ	ʐɕaʐ	aʑeɾi	əʑe’eɾa
t’oma’i	ma’i	t’ma’i	omji	əmje
ɬana	na	ɬna	ane’i	əne’e
la’up’i	a’ub	lub	ewp’	ewb
maɲu’ɛ	ɲa’u’ɛ	mɲu’ɛ	aɲe’ujj	əɲe’ujj
k’u	k’u	k’u	k’u	k’u
ik’a	k’ja	k’ja	k’i	ge
ŋo	ŋu	ŋu	wu	wo
anɛ	a’e	ən	aje’ej	əje’ej
rit͡sʼɛ	t͡θʼjɛ	ʐt͡θʼjɛ	t͡hʼjej	ət͡hʼjej
ɬiwu	wju	ɬwju	iw	wu
ŋalap’ɛ	lab	ŋlab	alep’jj	əle’ep’jj
lɛɾo	ʐu	lʐu	ejɾw	jɾwo
ji’a	ja	jja	jji	jje
uk’u	gu	gu	uk’	gu
ola	la	la	li	le
ɬoɕɛ	ɕɛ	ɬɕɛ	ɕjej	ɕjej
ju	ju	ju	ju	ju
sɛmi	mi	θmi	ejm	jmi
ɾɛwa	wa	ʐwa	ejwi	jwe
t’ijɛ	je	t’jɛ	ijjej	əjjej
p’ɛ	p’ɛ	p’ɛ	jej	jej
t’a’ɛ	a’ɛ	t’ɛ	aje’ej	əje’ej
ɕit͡sʼat͡ɕ’a	t͡θʼjat͡ɕ’e	ɕt͡θʼjat͡ɕ’e	t͡hʼad͡ʑe’i	dzəd͡ʑe
up’ɛ	bɛ	p’wɛ	jej	jej
ocu	cu	cu	oc	ɟu
t͡sʼap’a	θʼba	t͡θʼba	abe’i	əbe’e
ɲana	na	ɲna	ane’i	əne’e
wa’i	a’i	wi	ji	je
nip’a	p’ja	np’ja	p’i	be
t͡sʼiɬu	θʼɬju	t͡θʼɬju	iɬ	əɮu
ca	ca	ca	ci	ce
t’ɛ	t’ɛ	t’ɛ	jej	jej
jaŋu	ŋa’u	jŋu	en	əne’u
t͡ɕ’uɲu	ɲu	t͡ɕ’ɲu	uɲ	əɲu
k’usi	zi	k’θwi	uh	əzi
oŋu	ŋu	ŋu	on	nu
aho	a’u	hu	we	əwe’o
lɛt’iɲok’ɛ	diɲg	ldiɲg	jt’iɲk’jj	jt’iɲk’jj
uli	li	lwi	ul	li
t’usɛ	zɛ	t’θwɛ	uhjej	əhjej
namu	ma’u	nmu	em	əme’u
p’uli	li	p’lwi	ul	əli
ot͡ɕ’i’i	i’i	t͡ɕ’i’i	t͡ɕ’i	ə’i
θiθu	θju	θθju	iθ	ðu
ŋucu	cu	ŋcu	uc	ɟu
t’i	t’i	t’i	t’i	t’i

Day Thirty-Three

Goal: Create five animate nouns to test sound changes.

Body Terms

Bone – ɲawi
Blood – oɾo
Skin – p’ot͡sʼɛ
Egg – ɛŋɛ

Terrain Features/Weather

Moon – θa
Star – p’ik’u
Cloud – co
Sun – ɾɛ
Sky – ɬot͡sʼi
Land – ɾɛsɛ

Flora

Nightshade – ɛmi
Deadnettle – k’ɛri
Passionflower – ɕɛp’i
Wattle – orɛ
Fig – uja
Lantana – ri
Primrose – cisimo
Bird-of-paradise – p’ijot’a
Fleabane – t͡sʼamo
Blanketflower – θoŋa
Vine – cu
Smoketree – jɛk’o

Fauna

Raven – juci
Duck – t͡ɕ’o’o
Heron – ɬɛɲi
Thrush – ni
Gull – joɾici
Wren – mɛ
Wagtail – ɾoja
Pelican – mu’ut͡sʼɛ
Dove – p’i
Lapwing – hofa
Kite – uŋo
Turkey – miɾo
Louse – ri
Turtle – ŋu
Lizard – p’ut͡sʼuɕo
Snake – t͡sʼa
Frog – woɾi
Shell – numu
Butterfly – ɕomo
Dragonfly – cɛɲo
Bee – ɕorɛ
Beetle – mɛɕu
Dog – na
Bat – t͡sʼit’a
Squirrel – juθɛ
Armadillo – k’a’oŋa
Possum – ɬu’o
Hedgehog – coɾaɕa
Hare – waɲɛ
Monkey – ŋi
Rat – jiɲa
Dolphin – t’aja
Raccoon – nufɛca
Koala – nowano

Transitive Verbs

to open – ŋaθu
to weave – nɛɕo
to winnow – rot͡ɕ’u
to rub – uŋa
to cover – nu’o
to bend – wɛ
to comb – nɛt’i
to pinch – mu
to lack – uma
to lake – ɾɛsɛ
to bite – p’a’a
to swallow – la
to meet – nu
to wash – ho
to peel – t’iɬu
to grasp – ɾɛnu’u
to mouth – ɕocu
to sweep – p’ɛɕu
to pound – θoɾɛ
to lick – ɾu
to sharpen – k’ot’a
to resemble – θaɕo

Intransitive Verbs

to scratch – ɬini
to rest – ɛsi
to turtle – ŋu
to shake – at’a
to tree – ŋi
to swell – ɕo’u
to mountain – cu
to sea – wi
to swim – sumu
to urinate – t͡sʼo’o
to flower – θu
to lightning – umuhi
to sky – ɬot͡sʼi
to bleed – noŋi
to bathe – θɛ
to play – jɛt’o
to rain – ro’i
to copulate – rɛja’i
to thunder – afamɛ

Day Thirty-Four

Goal: Try compounding forms and test again.

Proto-Compounds	Proto 3.1	Proto 3.2	Proto 3.3	Proto 3.4	Proto 3.5	Proto 4.1	Proto 4.2	Proto 4.3
ot͡ɕ’i’ik’a’oŋa	d͡ɮiʁa’oŋe	d͡ɮiʁa’oŋe	d͡ɮiʁa’oŋe	d͡ɮiʁoŋe	d͡ɮiʁa’oŋe	t͡ɕ’ik’aŋa	ot͡ɕ’i’ik’a’oŋa	t͡ɕ’ik’a’ŋa
t’ijɛji	rjjej	χd͡ʒej	rjjej	rij	χjjij	t’jej	t’ijɛji	t’jej
p’iɕoji	ʑoj	ʑoj	ʑoj	ʑuj	ʑuj	p’ɕuj	p’iɕoji	p’ɕuj
ɾɛli	ɾjel	ɾjel	ɾd͡ʒel	ɾil	ɾjil	ɾle	ɾɛli	ɾɛl
up’ɛumuhi	d͡ʒũ ‘u’u	d͡ʒũ ‘u’u	d͡ʒũ ‘u’o	ũ ‘u’u	d͡ʒũ ‘u’u	p’ɛmh	up’ɛumuhi	p’ɛmh
t͡ɕ’o’oik’a	tɬʰiʁe	tɬʰiʁe	tɬʰiʁe	tɬʰiʁe	tɬʰiʁe	t͡ɕ’ok’a	t͡ɕ’o’oik’a	t͡ɕ’ok’a
nuanɛ	noɲ	naɲ	naɲ	naɲ	naɲ	nan	nuanɛ	nan
k’ot’aru’ana	χrrone	χʁʁu’ane	χrru’ane	χrru’ane	χʁʁu’ane	k’t’arana	k’ot’aru’ana	k’t’arana

Day Thirty-Five

Goal: Solidify your list of ordered sound changes.

Proto 3.1

3.1.1: p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
3.1.2: e o → je wo / #

3.1.3: {u,ɨ}i {,a,i {ɨi,i{a,ə}} u{ɨ,a,ə} → wi e je wo

3.1.4: a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)

3.1.5: s ts → ʃ tʃ / _i

3.1.6: w → ∅ / _o

3.1.7: Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V

3.1.8: a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o

3.1.9: ɛ ɔ → je we

3.1.10: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː

3.1.11: sj → js / V
3.1.12: h → ∅ “(just a reminder: from the f → h change above)”
3.1.13: C → C[+voiced] / V_V
3.1.14: j w → dʒ b / V_V
3.1.15: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.1.16: ʎ → /ʝ/ (“merged with”)
3.1.17: C[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (only for obstruents?)
3.1.18: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.1.19: (N)S → F / #(C)V_
3.1.20: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː

Proto 3.2

3.2.1: p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
3.2.2: e o → je wo / #

3.2.3: a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)

3.2.4: s ts → ʃ tʃ / _i

3.2.5: ɛ → a / _C[+palatal]

3.2.6: Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V

3.2.7: a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o

3.2.8: ɛ ɔ → je we

3.2.9: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː

3.2.10: ʎ → ʒ

3.2.11: h → ∅ “(just a reminder: from the f → h change above)”

3.2.12: {s̪,s} → h / $
3.2.13: n → ŋ / #

3.2.14: r → {ʐ,χ}

3.2.15: C → C[+voiced] / V_V

3.2.16: j w → dʒ b / V_V

3.2.17: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U

3.2.18: C[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (only for obstruents?)

3.2.19: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U

3.2.20: (N)S → F / #(C)V
3.2.21: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː
3.2.22: — a → e / _j

Proto 3.3

3.3.1: p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
3.3.2: e o → je wo / #

3.3.3: a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)

3.3.4: s ts → ʃ tʃ / _i

3.3.5: Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V

3.3.6: ah → o

3.3.7: a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o

3.3.8: ɛ ɔ → je we

3.3.9: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː

3.3.10: i u → e o / (C)#
3.3.11: h → ∅ “(just a reminder: from the f → h change above)”
3.3.12: C → C[+voiced] / V_V
3.3.13: j w → dʒ b / V_V
3.3.14: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.3.15: ʎ → /ʝ/ (“merged with”)
3.3.16: C[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (only for obstruents?)
3.3.17: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.3.18: (N)S → F / #(C)V_
3.3.19: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː

Proto 3.4

3.4.1: p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
3.4.2: e o → je wo / #

3.4.3: e o → i u / else

3.4.4: a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)

3.4.5: s ts → ʃ tʃ / _i

3.4.6: Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V

3.4.7: a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o

3.4.8: {bʱ,dʱ,ɡʱ} {j,v} → h ∅ / V_V

3.4.9: C → C[+voiced] / V_V

3.4.10: ɛ ɔ → je we

3.4.11: sj → js / V
3.4.12: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː
3.4.13: h → ∅ “(just a reminder: from the f → h change above)”
3.4.14: {s̪,s} → h “(in all environments)”
3.4.15: j w → dʒ b / V_V
3.4.16: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.4.17: ʎ → /ʝ/ (“merged with”)
3.4.18: C[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (only for obstruents?)
3.4.19: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.4.20: (N)S → F / #(C)V_
3.4.21: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː
3.4.22: Raising of e {ɛ,a} ɔ o → i e o u; near j, in particular environments:

Proto 3.5

3.5.1: p t tʃ k {dʒ,ɡ} ɲ → h r tɬʰ χ ∅ n
3.5.2: {s̪,s} → θ [θ] “(merged as)”
3.5.3: r → {ʐ,χ}
3.5.4: e o → je wo / #

3.5.5: a V → e (= /ə/?) ∅ / in final syllables (though Friulian preserves the ending -is)

3.5.6: s ts → ʃ tʃ / _i

3.5.7: Vm → Vv → V[+nas]v / _V

3.5.8: a{i,j}(a) a{u,w}(a) → e o

3.5.9: ɛ ɔ → je we

3.5.10: f → h / ! {ue,L}
3.5.11: p t k s ts → b d ɡ z dz / V_V
3.5.12: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː
3.5.13: h → ∅ “(just a reminder: from the f → h change above)”
3.5.14: C → C[+voiced] / V_V
3.5.15: j w → dʒ b / V_V
3.5.16: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.5.17: ʎ → /ʝ/ (“merged with”)
3.5.18: C[+ voiced] → ∅ / V_V (only for obstruents?)
3.5.19: Vː V[-long] → V[-long] ∅ / in #U
3.5.20: (N)S → F / #(C)V_
3.5.21: {jl,lj} {jn,nj} {jɡ,ɡj} → ʎ ɲ ʝː
3.5.22: Raising of e {ɛ,a} ɔ o → i e o u; near j, in particular environments:

Proto 4.1

4.1.1: w → ∅ / o

4.1.2: i u → e o / (C)#
4.1.3: Raising of e {ɛ,a} ɔ o → i e o u; near j, in particular environments:
4.1.4: V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a

Proto 4.2

4.2.1: w → ∅ / o

4.2.2: f → h / ! {ue,L}

Proto 4.3

4.3.1: w → ∅ / o

4.3.2: i u → e o / (C)#
4.3.3: e → ∅ / V{d,s,n,l,ɾ}#

4.3.4: Raising of e {ɛ,a} ɔ o → i e o u; near j, in particular environments:

4.3.5: f → h / ! {ue,L}
4.3.6: V → ∅ / unstressed ! V = a

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